Movements in Graphic Design

Discuss the term modernism in relation to at least one key movement in graphic design in the period before 1960. Your essay should consider the relation between progressive trends in the fine arts and the wider context of graphic design

      Modernism in graphic design began to Break through in the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth century “The term modernism refers to the radical shift in aesthetic and cultural sensibilities evident in the art and literature of the post-World War One period” (Modernist and the modern novel 2013) This quote expresses the term modernism and how it became apparent during the War period. It is also a term for the early 20^th century avant-garde trends which was seen in the visual arts. This included many different movements such as: Futurism in Holland, Constructivism: Russian and international, Cubism: France and international, Dadaism and purism.  This essay will discuss the term modernism in relation to a specific key movement in graphic design before the 1960’s. It will focus more closely on the movement Cubism and relate to other key movements and acknowledge the progressive trends in the fine arts and in the wider context of graphic design.  I will go on to describe how painting and cubism influenced graphic design and how the movement completely changed and progressed the arts. I will discuss the different trends lead by graphic design such as: the design of posters, journals, pamphlets, and all manner of printed products and relate this to avant-garde trends and what Megg calls “pictorial modernism.” 

      Throughout the years modern painting began to influence the graphic industry as many painters started to work in the graphic industry. This started in the early twentieth century which led movements to erupt in the visual arts. A key trend in modern art began which was known as Cubism. “Cubism was a truly revolutionary style of modern art developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braques. Cubism evolved at the beginning of the 20th century” (Cassandre 2013) This allows us to understand Cubism and how Cubism was formed and developed. Cubism is a satirical term used to express and describe the work of many painters. This began in France in the 1910’s and carried on through to the 1920’s where the art was mainly produced in Paris. Cubism was also known for being the first style of abstract art. This clearly shows significant change in art and how it was influenced towards graphic design and how it began a brand new trend which progressed dramatically. Many other artists were inspired by this movement such as: Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes.  Albert Gleizes also developed his own personal style which had elements of Cubism and Purism. Cubism was known to be a very complex style which included the subject of everyday life.  It was very disorientated and accumulated many different perspectives “The Cubist painters rejected the inherited concept that art should copy nature, or that they should adopt the traditional techniques of perspective, modelling, and foreshortening” (Heilbrunn Timeline of Art 2013) This quote signifies what cubist painters aimed to achieve and how instead they wanted to focus of the two-dimensionality of the canvas.  Cubism became very modern and allowed painting to influence graphic design which helped the graphics to expand.

      As well as that Cubism was an anti-realist tendency in painting that influenced key trends in the wider field of the visual arts. This began and progressed in Europe and many other places in the early years of the 20th century.  Another key factor in Cubism is seen through Braques work around 1913 where he makes pictures that have a very shallow picture space.  He abandons perspective as the object represented becomes fragmented sequence of overlapping forms which connotes imbrication. It is as if the objects are recalled at different times rather than being seen at one moment.  Braques image becomes very geometrical and abstracted. The cubist seems to rewrite the rules of representation. Cubism related to the many trends to which happened in the early stages of graphic design. These trends were most printed products such as: Journals, Pamphlets and the great design of posters.  “By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture.”(Cassandre 2013) This quote expresses the key trend of popular culture and modernism through graphic design and the movement Cubism.  An example of this is a man named Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron also known as Cassandre who went from painting to posters. The work which expresses this statement is his transport posters. His posters portrayed luxury transport which connoted the life style of his day.  Étoile du Nord and Nord Express were two pieces of Cassandre’ stylised work of speeding trains. He used stencils and airbrushes to create these ideas. His work represented the Cubism and Futurism styles of art work. Futurism was very similar to cubism in terms of variation as it was the Italian Variation of Cubism works. Cassandre’ style also had many connections with Art Deco and pictorial modernism. “Art Deco was a fusion of various early twentieth century styles: a combination of Art Nouveau’s stylized curves with the geometric abstraction of Cubism, Futurism and Constructivism”(Cassandre 2013) This shows how graphic design had become a part of many different movements . Constructivism is a style of modern art that dated back from the early 1920’s. It formed revolution due to every practice in the USSR (The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) which also relates to Art Deco. Art Deco is a very commercialised decretive of this kind of extreme modernism It is also mass-market modernism with many political ideas.  Cassandre was also known to be the designer of the different art deco typefaces such as: Bifur in 1929, Acier Noir in 1935 and Piegnot in 1937. This allows us to see the progressive trends lead by graphic designers and how more and more ideas were growing rapidly such as his serial poster idea which was also seen as cubist work.

      There was also a gradual change from cubist distortion of form to abstract painting through the early 20th century. Abstract art became a part of printed products. Many artists followed this work such as: Mondrian who contributed to the De Stiji group and art movement and the work of El Lissitsky in Russia who was known to be a constructivist. One of Mondrians famous pieces which expressed modernist art and cubism was his painting of the sea in 1912 which consisted of interlocking planes and geometric shapes.   Also the picture plane is acknowledged and its flatness is more evident than it would be in realistic or traditional type’s pf pictorial representation. Through his work we see a great progression to graphic design and abstract modern art through his “composition with yellow, blue and Red” which he produced n 1937-1944. Many painters such as Mondrian and El Lissitisky turned to graphic media. This was due to the fact that they believed it was more democratic and how it would reach a wider audience compared to the audience of Gallery Art.  Also abstraction was mainly associated with the most jealous of extreme modernism such as artists like: DR. Const, De Stijl and many more.  This also relates to French purism which is seen as commercially modern which is watered down for popular consumption.  Leading on from that, there were also artists who followed the movements of dada which the statement can be defined as: “an art movement of the early 20^th century. This movement is described as a movement of artists against art.”(Artlyst 2013) This quote connotes the definition of what Dadaism was. Dada and the constructivist’s artists railed against “Gallery Art.” The reason for this is because they believed that it was thought to be elitist. However these particular types of artists did in fact embrace the artistic innovations in cubism as well as the other key movements

      Carrying on from that, there was also a social aim to reach a wider public and a wider audience where designers needed to maintain pictorial reference. New trends began again such as the printing of small journals, posters, tickets and many more. Much of this went on in Germany at the Bauhaus. “The complete building is the ultimate aim of all the visual arts” (Meggs pg. 288 1992) the Bauhaus was a school that combined crafts as well as the fine arts which was founded by a man named Walter Gropius.  A lot of these also went on in the political graphic of John Heart fields work.  John was an artist who used art as a political weapon.  He was best known for his work on exposing German Nazism in the 1930’s. An example of this work is: Adolf, the Superman 1992) which was one of many famous montages he had created. Not only was it a social aim to reach a wider public but also a social aim of the Russian constructivists. This included artists such as Lissitisky and Alexander Rochenko who both made very early paintings which was seen to be connected with the futurism and cubism movements. An example of a piece of work related to this is: Dobrolet 1923 by Rochenko which expressed his graphic design work. These artists set trends in graphic design as their work had progressed over the years. As well as that there was also a significant influence on the futurist tinged work by the painter Kasimir Malevich who was also known for his abstract style of art which fell into the suprematism movement of which he was the originator of. Comparing this to the work of Lissitisky abstraction it is very similar in the Russian context.

      Furthermore, most off the artists discussed above who were seen as painters in modern art, soon turned into graphic designers? They were very progressive in terms of trends and talent and were experimental in their approach to designing. A lot of artists believed that their “modernist” approach was connected with revolutionary change in society. Another key artist which shows modern art and graphic design is the work of Fernand Leger whose work collides with purism as well as cubism. He made paintings that were close to the modernist graphics in France in the 1920’s. He had a strong love for mechanical object, machines and technical structure. This was round 1918 to 1923 which was called his “mechanical period” A prime example of this is in his painting in 1920 called Mechanical elements.  This picture has elements of cubist ideas.  It has dots, circles, rectangles and black horizontal and vertical lines. The shapes are brightly coloured and the picture was trying to express how technologies were transforming the modern world. This expressed post-Cubist pictorial modernism which was another key trend in graphics said by Megg. This idea relates to the “British painters James Pryde (1866–1941) and William Nicholson (1872–1949)” (Meggs Chapter 14 2011) their work was powerful, colourful with shapes and silhouettes. This was influenced by modern art and the war. During World War one graphics and posters was a form of communication medium where words and images were integrated which shown progression in the graphic trends and propaganda.

      There was also a great development in graphic design and early cubism. We can see that through the likes of Picasso’s early cubist work to the more or less abstract, decorative imagery in the 1920’s of work by Mondrian. The development was seen through landscape art to pure abstractions. As well as that the Journal design created by De Stijl represents the development and shift towards geometrical purity. Aesthetic puritanism is a characteristic of the most avant-garde trends and developments in graphics in the early twentieth century which was influenced by modernist tendencies in art.  Hard line modernists such as De Stijl, Bauhaus, Russian constructivists, Jan Tschichold the typographer banished realism and decoration.   Tshichod explored a new approach to graphic design “The person who applied these new design approaches to everyday design problems and explained them to a wide audience of printers, typesetters and designers was Jan Tschichold” (Meggs pg.297) His work was seen as avant-garde and he created new typography in a modern manner. Many artists turned to graphics as a medium that is integrated with everyday life.  They were seen as idealists but found themselves drawn into commercial design.  These particular artists began even more trends.

      In conclusion Modern painting influenced the graphic industry in many ways.  Their was a progression in trends in graphic design and many key movements were a part of this. This essay discussed modernism in terms of the key movement Cubism in the period before 1960. It also discussed other key movements such as: Futurism, Dadaism, Purism, and Constructivism. It expressed the different trends lead by graphic design such as: the design of posters, journals, pamphlets, and all manner of printed products and related to avant-garde trends and what Megg calls “pictorial modernism.”  It also discussed how cubism influenced graphic design and how the movement completely changed the arts. I looked at key examples of artists work and artists themselves. Such as: Picasso, Braques, Cassandre, Mondrian, De Stijl, Lissitsky and many more.  It explained cubism and the progression in graphic design and analysed what key factors of cubist work. Over all there has been a significant change in graphic design due to modern art and many painters became graphic designers and were very influenced by cubism and other movements in relation to this one.  The visual arts came along way in the early 20^th century and graphic expanded dramatically due to pictorial modernism, key movements and key artists.

Bibliography

Books:

Philip B, Meggs (1992) A History of Graphic Design Second Edition New York

Phillip B, Meggs & Alston W. Purvis (2011) A History of Graphic Design Fifth Edition Wiley America

Online:

 Cassandre - Classic Art Deco Posters. 2013. Cassandre - Classic Art Deco Posters. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/graphic_designers/cassandre.htm. [Accessed 10 December 2013]

Cubism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2013. Cubism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cube/hd_cube.htm. [Accessed 10 December 2013]

Dada; A movement of artists against art. - ArtLyst. 2013. Dada; A movement of artists against art. - ArtLyst. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.artlyst.com/member-articles/dada-a-movement-of-artists-against-art. [Accessed 11 December 2013]

Modernism and the Modern Novel . 2013. Modernism and the Modern Novel . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0255.html. [Accessed 10 December 2013]

Contemporary British Cinema: This Is England

Representations of working class and race in contemporary British Cinema focusing of the film This Is England

      Representation can be defined as a way in which something or someone is portrayed through the media and on screen. It has largely dealt with how particular social groups have been represented such as women, young people, old people, sub cultures and many more through re-presenting and the idea of reality. However sometimes it is hard to define what representation really means: “representation has no fixed meaning until it has been represented” (Moore 2013) This quote by Stuart hall expresses that representation is hard to define until it has actually been seen and done. This essay will aim to express representations of the working class through the main characters and setting of the film this is England. It will also aim to express representations of race through the main characters and storyline in the film. It will also focus on the extent in which the film represents realism in terms of racism, class and violence and will look at key issues and debates in terms of race and class. It will focus on the subculture of skin heads and look at the subculture theory as a form of critique to mainstream hegemonic culture. It will analyse two key scenes in the film which expresses representations of working class and race in contemporary British cinema and it will discuss Shane Meadows the director of the film in relation to the Auteur theory. It will also look at other aspects of the film when analysing class and race. 

      This is England was released on the 27th April 2007 in the United Kingdom and was directed and written by Shane Meadows which was seen as the genre of a British drama. The narrative follows the life of a young troubled boy growing up in England in 1983 where a group of skinheads become his new best friends. His father was killed in the conflict with Argentina where his mother was now his only companion. The film shows an intense insight into the subculture of skinheads and expresses the divisions caused by white nationalists and neo-Nazis which was around in this time in England and how the skinhead culture became more than just style, music and soul as it became adapted by white nationalists. The film talks about the Falklands war and nationalistic politics of two different groups opinions which allow the division to be made in the plot. Throughout the film many groups of people are represented such as: Teenagers, The working class, Black British, British Asian, Middle class, Skin head culture, Criminals and single mothers. This shows many different representations of people in the film and allows that idea of representations and reality and of course stereotypes are shown. “Today, a stereotype can be defined a fixed idea or image people have of a particular of person or thing” (Brunsch pg. 3 2013) this signifies what a stereotype is and how people stereotype others on looks and what they have previously seen. This Is England is a look back at the early 1980’s period of the British working class life style which is seen through the eyes of the young protagonist Shaun and his gang of friends. It allows us to see the struggle of influences such as unemployment, racism and xenophobia. We see this through the narrative of the film itself and all the characters shown such as Shaun, Woody and Combo. The film also expresses the idea of leadership through combo’s character and we see the two different sides of the skin head culture through Woody’s group and Combo’s group.

      

   A key scene from the film This Is England is the scene where Shaun the protagonist and Combo the extreme skinhead are in their local shop abusing the owner due to his race. This scene shows extreme racism and extreme leadership through Combo’s character over Shaun. It shows very gritty content which spectators would find very shocking and offensive. The language used in the script is also very graphic. Combo goes on to abuse the shop owner which expresses historical content of what was happening in England at the time. An explanation of race can be seen as: “‘race’, is a social and historical construction whose meanings and uses have changed over time”(Smith 2008 pg.23) This quote is taken from David smiths theory’s about race and he is explaining the meaning of race and how it has changed dramatically over the years. This relates to the film This Is England due to the historical content the film holds of racism and war etc. Carrying on from that the scene is expressing when black and Indians moved into the Country in the 1980’s. The character Combo has very strong views and believes that many people have come to England and taken all the jobs and that’s why they are unemployed. He believes it is their fault that there are no jobs for them to do. Around this time there were many different types of skin heads. This Is England represents the different types through the characters. Many skinheads were apolitical and held very strong views about race and ethnicity. There were different types of skin heads who were known to be anti-racist and skinheads who engaged in violence especially against South Asian immigrants which was also known as paki-bashing in common slang. This is England clearly represents this through Woody who is seen as anti-racist and Combo who is seen as an extreme skinhead with powerful views. This then started to form the skin head culture in their area. Even though skin heads were not racist from the beginning the film shows the development of certain skin heads becoming racist. This then became their Identity which then explained who and what they were and what they believed in. "By the end of the 1980's they achieved a reputation as the most violent extremist group in the country". (Moore:1993:4) This quote by Moore’s explains how violent the skin head culture were seen to be and how they were seen as a threat to society which we see In the film This is England to extent through the graphic nature of the narrative and through the action on screen.

     

Following on from that, we also see strong representations of class as the skin head culture was known to be of the working class hierarchy. When talking about the scene I mentioned before we see this clearly and also in the key scene of when Shaun is transformed into a skin head by the rest of his gang. Shaun persuades his mother to buy him some brand new Doctor Martin boots. We see straight away that Shaun is from a working class background and that his family do not have much money as Shaun’s mother expresses how expensive they are. However she proceeds and buys them to help her son fit in. The group then shave his hair to make him look like one of them as it was known for the skinhead culture to have shaved heads.  His footwear is now doctor martins and his shirt is checked and he starts to wear the brand which is known in this subculture of skinheads such as Fred Perry and ben Sherman. He is also seen throughout the film wearing suspenders. All of these are representations of class. This was the fashion for this sub culture in the 1980’s and most of the groups of skinheads would wear these particular items of clothing. Not only was it a representation of class but it also became a representation of race as this was what people thought when they thought of the skin head culture. This is because of the stereotypes formed by many people in the 1980’s. The majority of skinheads were known to be racist which meant if you had this particular look and style you were known as trouble to other groups of people such as the immigrants around this period of time. “People can be divided into races usually via observable differences in appearance. Some accounts are obsessed with ‘colour, hair and bone’ difference, which are used to argue for an absolute difference between ‘black’ and white” (Branston & Stafford  pg. 111 2010) This quote expresses that racism does not necessarily  mean a hate towards non-white people but more of stereotypes in one’s culture. This relates to this is England as the groups of characters we see are strongly stereotyped for their appearance and behaviour which allows race representations to appear.

    However, not only in the key scenes this essay has mentioned but throughout the entire film race and class is shown in many other different ways: For example where the film is set. The film is set in northern England in the east midlands and throughout most area’s and locations used on camera come across and are seen to be very grey, gritty and full of back streets which portrays the living conditions of Britain in the 1980’s. This was all down to the unemployment rates and how men had hardly any money to fund a decent life style for themselves and for their families. This was all due to the lack of job opportunities in England at the time. This historical and known content strongly represents the working class as it was hard for them to get by around this time. This is also a signification of class exploitation. “THE TERM "exploitation" often conjures up images of workers labouring in sweatshops for 12 hours or more per day” (Lapon 2011) this quote explains the term exploitation and how it affects social class. This is seen through This Is England as we see the characters struggling for work. Carrying on from that this then also leads on to further representations of race in the film as many skinheads believed that their jobs had been taken by minorities which were known to be immigrants. This then allowed racism to occur as it was their way of helping themselves in what they believed was right and it became acceptable in certain parts of the skinhead culture to be racist as they believed they were doing what was right for their country.

      Furthermore, another key scene in the film this is England Is the scene where the character Combo makes his “This Is England” speech to the rest of the gang.  This scene expresses the depths of Combo’s beliefs when it comes to racism. Combo’s this is England speech was based on the condition of immigration and criticism of Margaret Thatcher’s Falkland war policy. This was a large debate in the 1980’s in England between many different people and especially in the skin head culture. His speech is extremely racist due to the language used and what he says. However we do see characters such as Woody in this clip who is seen to be an antiracist skinhead to be in disgust to what is being said by combo but does not say a word due to the violence it may cause. This is the part in the film were the protagonist Shaun also starts to realise the extremist views some people have about others. Combo would be seen as an extremist due to this speech and later in the film when he brutally attacks the character known as milky due to jealousy, racism and rage. "The most conspicuous sign of change (the black presence in traditionally white working class areas) was being used by the skinheads to re-establish continuity with a broken past" (Hebdige:1979:57).This quote explains the racism imbedded in the skin head culture which drove many people like combo to become racist as the change in England at this time was a great shock to them. It also expresses the historical content which the English grew up with and how it had affected their culture. This is clearly shown throughout This Is England. As well as that the beginning of the film is a great eye opener to the spectators. This is because it begins with grainy footage of the Falkland’s war which Combo talks about later in the film. This expresses realism and the issues of what was occurring in the England. The diegetic sound shown in this part of the film is speeches of the embattled cultural which is known as race of the not so good and nice Great Britain. This is a persuasion in the media of the topic war to be still thought about every day and to make it an issue to everybody who is living in England in the 80’s which caused much conflict. 

     However, there have been many arguments about social realism and if this is England is in fact a true representation of what people and Britain were like in the 1980’s. Social realism is a genre of film that focuses on topical issues such as class, race, money, drugs etc. which is seen through modern society and seen through the script of this is England. This is England is put into the category of a social realism film due to This is England being based on true events which had happened in Britain around the 1980’s which makes it a realistic story and theme as the film was based on historical facts about war and law. It was around the exact time when Margret thatcher was in power which made violence occur due to the rise of immigration and the increase of unemployment rates due to her decisions. Many British men could not provide for their families which caused racism as the men had no control anymore of what they seen was their own rights. It became the norm for the working class to be seen as racist which represents stereotypes, “This is England is an autobiographical film, based on Meadow’s experience during his childhood.” This explains the realism of the film and how the representations are in fact true as the director himself experienced what was happening in England in the 1980’s. This is due to the director being seen as an Auteur as he is putting his own experiences into his film and makes it very personal to himself as a director.  “Theory of filmmaking in which the director is viewed as the major creative force in a motion picture” (Auteur Theory) this explains the idea of the Auteur theory and what elements are needed to be an auteur which Meadows is seen to be. “Over a group of films a director must exhibit certain recurrent characteristics of style, which serve as his signature.” This quote was said by Andrew Sarri (Auteur Theory 2014) this expresses the idea of theme director Shane Meadows had through most of his films as they were similar to the theme and story of this is England.  Another element of the film which is seen as a strong connotation is that the film is also in a fast pace motion to represent that it is going through the years quickly and to signify changes in events and that it is not about the present but it is about the past and history which also represents realism. Meadows used unknown actors in his movie this is England to get the feeling of a realistic nature of living as he believed known actors would not form that sense of realism due to the theory of stardom. This expresses what Bazin called the "ontological realism" which many directors such as Meadows put faith into and put this idea into his own work and films. 

      When looking at the film this is England we clearly see the sub culture theory as the sub culture of skin heads is shown throughout the film and throughout each character. We see the subculture theory as a form of critique to mainstream hegemonic culture as it was different back in the 1980’s as issues such as race and class were a lot stronger in England at this time compared to the culture now.  A man named E.B. Taylor in the time of 1871 made one of the very first definitions of what he thought culture was:” Culture, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. ” (Peacock pg. 3 2001) This quote connotes the definition of culture and helps to define the aspects of what makes culture what it is today. We see this in relation to this is England’s narrative as it is in fact about people’s beliefs, morals and the law itself at the time of what was happening. For example the law of immigration by Margret thatcher in the 1980’s was an incredible dramatic change which is shown in the film itself. When it comes to the sub culture as a theory it expresses that people who tend to live in an urban area or setting are more able to find ways of creating and adapting a type of community together even despite what is happening at the time of creating there community. We see this through Shaun the protagonist and his friends as they build a community together which expresses their skinhead culture regardless of the alienation and problems happening around them.

    

  “A skinhead is a member of a youth subculture that originated among working class in the United Kingdom in the 1960s, and then spread to other parts of the world.”(Subculture list) This quote defines what a skin head actually is and how they are seen to be and helps to explain where the subculture originated from and how it began so spread worldwide. However the film questions how we define the skin head culture and what it is it stands for. This is shown through the characters of Woody and Combo. This is due to the fact of them both being skin heads but having completely different views on racial matters. Meadows plan was to update the matter by expressing the most frequent skin heads associated with race and not just simply stereotype anyone as racist. Woody was seen as an anti-racist and combo was seen as the complete opposite. This is expressing that not all skin heads are racist and it is in fact just a stereotype made by others.

     

  To conclude, this essay aimed to express representations of the working class when analysing the key film this is England by Shane Meadows. It also aimed to represent race and class through the sub culture theory and the subculture of skinheads. It expressed terms of stereotypes and focused on the director himself for being known as an auteur and explained the auteur theory to an extent. It expressed ideas of class and race through the main characters such as Shaun the protagonist, Woody the anti-racist and Combo who was seen as the extreme racist of the film. Another powerful way in which the essay explained race and class was through the narrative of the film: Such as the storyline of racism, immigrants, violence and many more key topics. Also through the setting and historical context the film holds .It clearly aimed to deal with the term realism and focused closely at many key issues and debates in terms of race and class. This text clearly aimed to explain representations and a key point which was made was the idea of how the skin head culture itself clearly represented class and race and how this was a very key topic in the 1980’s in England and how it caused many extreme problems. The essay also looked at key theorists and theories such as Hedge, Moore, smith and many more to explain more in depth about race, class and representations. 

 Bibliography

  Books

  Brunsch, C (2013) Stereotyping as a Phenomenon in Intercultural Communication: Grin Verlag

  Branston, G & Stafford, R (2010) The Media Students Book: Routledge

Moore, J (1993). Skinheads shaved for battles: a cultural history of American skinheads. U.S.A: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.

Hedge, D (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London, New York: Routledge. 

Peacock, J,L (2001) The Anthropological Lens: Harsh Light, Soft Focus: Cambridge University Press; 2 edition

Internet

Moore, K Representation - Media Criticism. 2014. Representation - Media Criticism. [ONLINE] Available at: http://media.litmuse.net/vocabulary/bias/representation. [Accessed 06 January 2014]

Skinhead - skinheads subculture - skinhead movement. 2014. Skinhead - skinheads subculture - skinhead movement. [ONLINE] Available at:http://subcultureslist.com/skinheads/. [Accessed 06 January 2014]

Seino, T (2010) Realism and representations of the working class in contemporary British cinema De Montfort University Available at:https://www.dora.dmu.ac.uk [Accessed on 24/11/2013]

Smith, D (2008) Key concepts and theories about race Available at http://www.sagepub.com/ [Accessed on: 25/11/2013]

. 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at:http://sharepoint.mvla.net/teachers/GalenR/Film%20Analysis/Documents/Class%20Readings/AUTEUR%20THEORY.pdf. [Accessed 06 January 2014]

auteur theory (filmmaking) -- Encyclopedia Britannica. 2014. auteur theory (filmmaking) -- Encyclopedia Britannica. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44609/auteur-theory. [Accessed 06 January 2014]

Lapon, G What do we mean by exploitation? | SocialistWorker.org. 2014. What do we mean by exploitation? | SocialistWorker.org. [ONLINE] Available at:http://socialistworker.org/2011/09/28/what-do-we-mean-exploitation. [Accessed 06 January 2014].

Developments in film history and film movements

Kirsty Louise Dunn

Film Movements

Contrast and compare developments in film history between the earlier and later movements within the field.  What are the changes in focus, if any?  Make reference to at least TWO movements and at least TWO films.

“A film movement consists of not only films but also the activities of a specific filmmaker. We must go beyond noting stylistic and formal qualities, for each period and nation we shall also sketch relevant factors that affect the cinema” (Bordwell and Thompson, 2001, p399) Bordwell and Thompson’s quote helps us to try and define or explain in depth the term film movement and discuss their own ideas on the subject of matter. Film movements can be seen in the perspective of history or art focusing specifically at a moment in crisis. History is made up of events and facts. Eh Carr says that “History is not simply the gathering of facts - it is also about interpretation” This expresses how one’s interpretations can change what history is. This makes it hard for us as critics to really define a film movement. This essay will demonstrate the developments in the film history between an earlier movement and a later movement within the field and express the changes which occur due to the incredible transformations. I will do this by analysing two key films:  The film water directed by Deepa Mehta an indo-Canadian film maker which was produced in 2005  when discussing new Indian cinema  Secondly the film: The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari Directed by Robert Wiene  which was produced then released in 1921 when looking at German expressionism as the film movement. Many Film Movements in the 20^th century have risen and fallen and this is still happening today but developments in the film history are shown through both of these films and movements due to the the movement being from an earlier and later stage.

India is the second most populous country in the world. It is also known due to it being the world’s largest film producing country which was even larger then Hollywood. Indian films are seen in many different places such as: United States of America, south Asia, Europe and the Middle East, almost all over the world. New Indian cinema can also be seen as world cinema due to the timing and dates. Clifford Geertz a social anthropologist quoted: “culture is a ‘way of life...webs of significance that people spin around themselves’.  This expresses that Cinema itself opens up a window in and on to a culture and its study brings immediate unavailability to other media sources. “Cinema in India thus has been uses as a propagandist tool, exploration of the orthodoxy” This also connotes the caste system and the use of entertainment” through Indian cinema and how it focuses directly at culture. The Indian film I will be discussing fits into the movement of new Indian cinema for many reasons such as realism and cultural theory’s. Comparing India’s history to the German film industry we see comparisons and contrasts as Germany was suffering severe economic problems. However, due to the post war Germany’s film industry emerged with a vibrant approach. The film industry for Germany was ranked second only to Hollywood between 1918 and 1933. Straight away we see the difference in the film industry through both movements. However we see the developments in the industry and how it was getting better due to many different aspects as both industries were doing well for the time the films were created. German expressionism began in the 1920’s and New Indian cinema did not have a specific time period due to the movement changing its name as it was first known as the new Indian wave to begin with and then became New Indian Cinema which started occurring around 1970 to present. The film has New Indian wave conventions throughout.

Water differs from popular Indian cinema due to its realistic conventions portrayed throughout. We see this through the main themes of the narrative: Religion, widow community and poverty issues; whereas The Cabinet of Dr Caligari represents the unrealistic expressionism style through themes of, death, horror, fantasy and many more.  The reason Robert Wienes film helped the film industry to develop is because it was known as the most influential film in the expressionism movement.  Though Roberts’s film does have parts of shocking content which relates to German’s society it does not show on screen throughout the film compared to a film like water. This is because water was produced in 2005 and there had been a great change in the film industry to allow this to happen. This shows a dramatic change in focus. This was the change in directors being allowed to express themselves more through narrative and visual style etc. Somewhat like an auteur. It also expresses how the industry developed over time from the movement German expressionism to new Indian cinema as the film The Cabinet of Dr Caligari was produced in 1921. Furthermore, it was also known as “Haunted screen” and connotes “a world of shadows and mirrors” (Bradley & Palmer 2006 pg.17) this signifies the troubled minds of the German society and the history behind the making of this film which represents the core of a film movement. As their was a crisis of war and social issues at the time. ‘Film movements arise as distinct alternatives to the style of ordinary filmmaking of their day, they often employ unusual techniques.’ (Bordwell & Thompson 2003 pg. 83) This quote connotes what both films are trying to portray. Roberts’s film shows unusual techniques such as exaggerated use of shadows throughout and the use of stylised and highly symbolic aspects of the film. Water can relate due to the narrative unusualness and the difference it has to an ordinary film such as extreme realism. This also shows a development as more things were happening in the time of each movement and the industry was getting better and it also represents the aesthetics of art in both films which was a great change for most industries.

Water is a Hindi film created at the time of when productions had become greater and this became the principle national language as many films started to choose Hindi dialogue. However Deepa’s film was not filmed in the place of what is said on screen and took seven years to make. This is because of the Indian governments and laws.  A quote from the film maker herself said: “They go through the script with a very fine tooth comb, to ensure that there's nothing derogatory in the script. Or, anything in it that reflects badly on India or Indians” (Mushy 2005) this connotes why Deepa had to shoot her film in Sir Lanka instead of India due to strong complications and it expresses the difference in Indian cinema to World cinema as there was still boundaries. Compared to Robert Wienes film there was no complications when making or creating The Cabinet of Dr Caligari as it was more about the horror genre and the stylised sets on screen which could not be seen as offensive. This film helps bring on the genre Horror and film Noir whereas the film water was already a genre. This shows a development in the film industry for Germany in contrast to Indian new cinema and how the horror genre was changing and becoming a popular main genre. However Water has strength in capturing important aspects of the Indian reality and the ethnographic themes and explains important areas of the Indian experience such as the Hindu traditions. This is shown through the narrative when Chuyia a seven year old widow is sent to spend her life in renunciation and is forced to have her head shaved and made to wear particular clothing. This shows a specific time in India’s traditions and religions. Comparing this to The Cabinet of Dr Caligari the way in which it expresses he horror genre was through the creepy silent vibe of the film and the through the narrative. We see this when the character Alan dies in a violent manner and becomes a part of the many murders which have occurred during this film. “A relationship that proves both duplicitous and dangerous.” (Bradley & Palmer 2006 pg. 16) this quote analyses and discusses the narrative and explains the idea which fits into the horror genre. This shows the incredible development of the film industry as the plots and narrative were getting more in depth, specific and could now be categorised into genres.

Another development in the film industry which we can draw upon from these particular movements is the aesthetic artistic nature both films portray. Before German expressionism the film industry did not create art type shots due to having no inspirations and suffering economic problem due the War. Robert Weines film however does create art through the stylised sets in every scene. An example of this is when you see at approximately 5 minutes and 35 seconds when two characters are walking together. We see extreme jagged buildings and abstract designs. This happened due to a style created in 1908 of paintings and drama which was then taken and put into film. “When first brought to the screen in the post-first world war era, seemed to bear a clearly subversive visual potential (Bradley & Palmer 2006 pg. 17) This represents the clear change and development for Germany as German expressionism became even greater when The cabinet of Dr Caligari was produced due to it being a little after expressionism came about. The main aim in expressionism was to show emotions in the most explicit and exaggerated way possible. Roberts’s film perceived this idea throughout and it achieved what it was meant to achieve.  A development and change we see because of this is the fact it went from painting to stage to film. Deepa’s film Water also shows improvement in an aesthetic art nature due its bright colours and lighting throughout the film. Indian movies are known to be vibrant with colour and we see this through the mice en scene almost in every part of the film. Both films are also a low budget production and succeeded in different ways. This expresses the contrast and comparisons of the changes and developments in the film industry around these specific times. Germany became part of the international film industry due to Robert Wienes expressionism film. The cabinet of Dr Caligari expresses the real life crisis of what was happening in Germany through unrealistic art and expressions just like theatre. An article by Polar said it was the “answer to the grim reality of daily life” (Kolar 2012) comparing this to the film Water: water represents the traditions of India back in 1932 and also expresses realism of the crisis which happened too. Another key development in the new Indian cinema was that the government encouraged film finance body to support low budget marketing’s. This was an extremely great change in the industry. As well as that the term “Diasporic films” were also a change in focus in the Indian cinema. Deepa Mehta film Water came under this category due to her film being made abroad but with a strong sense of Indian component and the fact she was a non-resident of India. The tradition of ‘socially aware’ films has been supported by Indian filmmakers such as Mira Nair and Deepa Mehta” (Stafford 2006) this quote discusses the developments of India and the film industry. The way in which this happened was Indian cinema became more “politically orientated” and a more “socially aware form of cinema” which then made the film Water very successful in the new Indian cinema.

Carrying on from that, The themes of expressionism films carried on and integrated into new films in the late 1930’s this connotes a significant change and development due to films getting inspiration from Robert Wienes film The Cabinet Of Dr Caligari.  As well as Robert many other directors such as: “Fritz Lang, Billy Wilder, Otto Preminger, Alfred Hitchcock and Michael Curtiz introduced the expressionism style” (Begum 2011) this expresses the developments from other directors in the industry because of the film and movement of German expressionism by Robert Weines. Comparing this to Indian directors and Diasporic films it was hard for females to direct in most industries however the director of water Deepa Mehta is in fact female. “Gurinder Chadha in the UK and Deepa Mehta have all made headlines with films set in India.”(Stafford 2006) For Indian new cinema this represents one of the biggest changes in focus in the film industry to date as woman were being seen a lot more in the directing world. As the film was made in 2005 this shows how this movement began to create this change significantly as this is still one of the cases in the film industry today.

To conclude this essay there has been a significant number of developments and changes in the film industry between the earlier and later movements in the field. I discussed the film The Cabinet of Dr Calgari directed by Robert Wienes when discussing the developments through German expressionism and the film Water directed by Deepa Mehta when discussing the developments through New Indian cinema and the key changes which occurred.  When discussing German expressionism where I compared and contrasted them both. The main strong developments were the creation of the Horror genre, how it was the most influential film in German expressionism and how it influenced other directors and auteur’s and brought about aesthetics of art. When discussing New Indian Cinema one of the greatest key changes was the fact that female directors were becoming the headlines. Other main developments I analysed was the use of strong content which was now allowed to be shown due to the different times of the movements,  Diasporic films, aesthetic art and many more. Over all we see great changes in focus and developments happening throughout these movements in the German film industry and Indian film industry and the film industry as a whole.

Bibliography:

Badley, L., Barton Palmer, J., & Schneider, S. J. (2005). Traditions in World Cinema. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press

Bordwell, D, Thompson, K (2003) Film Art: An Introduction Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Geertz, C (1977) The Interpretation of Cultures  Princeton, New Jersey

Begum. S.A (2011) German expressionism Slide Share [Online] Available at: <http://www.slideshare.net/rubykhuntaecwoochanhosu/german-expressionism-3099687> [Accessed 01 June 2013]

Stafford. R (2006) Indian Cinema: The world’s biggest and most diverse film industry [Online] Available at: <http://www.cornerhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/old_site//media/Learn/Study%20Guides/Indian%20cinema.pdf> [Accessed 02 June 2013]

Kolar (2012) German expressionism: The World of Light and Shadow [Online] Available at :< http://mubi.com/lists/german-expressionism-the-world-of-light-and-shadow> [Accessed on 02 June 2013]

Mushy (2005) EXCLUSIVE: Deepa Mehta talks water [Online] Available at: <http://www.movieweb.com/news/exclusive-deepa-mehta-talks-water> [Accessed on 02 June 2013]